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GIP adds an anatomically distinct perturbation: it increases splanchnic blood flow, expanding the mesenteric capacitance bed and reducing effective venous return to the right heart (Hedge et al., 2025)

Practical Implication: This research validates that topical GHK-Cu formulations achieve meaningful tissue concentrations, supporting the rationale for both cosmetic and research applications

TD oestrogen does not increase the risk of venous thromboembolism (VTE) and is therefore recommended for all women with an increased background risk of VTE, including a BMI 30 kg/m 2

Side Effects and Safety Considerations Common side effects overlap: gastrointestinal upset (nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea), temporary loss of appetite, and occasional injection-site reactions